1. What writing skills did you improve while working on your Human Body Research Paper? Explain. 2. What are some concepts that you learned about the human body during this unit that you think are important (not just interesting)? 3. What was the most challenging part of writing your Human Body Research Paper? Why? 4. What aspect of the Human Body Research Paper are you most proud of? Why? | 1.I learned how to revise right after I finished the part I was working on so I could fix spelling and to make sure it made sense. I also learned how to write transition because I had to put one inbetween each lead off and follow up. 2. That the Digestive doesn't just digest it actually converts food into energy we use. Also that muscles only pull not push. 3. To figure out how to transition because sometimes it didn't make sense with what I wanted to say. Also it was hard because I also had to use the transition to make a flow in the paragraph. 4. That I finished the digestive system because that system is very big and confusing. Also the Muscular system because it was the first system I did by myself. |
Human Body Research Paper
By: Aidan O.
March, 2015
Introduction To Human Body Research Paper:
The human body has six main systems and is a complex machine that is constantly working to keep us alive. Although each system has its own unique jobs to do, they synergize to keep us healthy and active.
The skeletal system is responsible for giving us support, structure, and protection and works together with the muscular system to move our body. Our muscles pull our bones, which allows us to move, jump, and run! The muscular system actually plays an important role in delivering oxygen to our body’s cells. Without the heart, one of our most important muscles, blood wouldn’t be able to travel around our body! Luckily for us, the blood travels through our lungs, where it drops off carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen that our cells are craving. Speaking of craving, did you ever know that the main purpose of our digestive system isn’t just to digest food? It’s job is actually to take nutrients and water out of what we eat and drink and then deliver it to the circulatory system where it gets delivered to the cells in our body. But none of these systems would work without the direction of our nervous system!
Now let’s get right into it with the skeletal system, where you’ll learn how our bones help us move and protect our organs.
Skeletal System:
The skeletal system has several important jobs to do in our body. It is responsible for creating blood cells, providing our body with support and structure, and enabling us to move. We have several bones that are responsible for protecting our organs like the ribs protect our heart and lungs, and the skull protects our brain! Bones cannot move unless joined together at joints. Ligaments connect our bones together and cartilage prevents them from rubbing together which would be painful! We are so lucky to have strong, powerful, yet moveable bones in our body!
The bones in our body are made up of four distinct layers. Each of these layers has important responsibilities and are vital to our day-to-day life. The outer layer of bone is called compact bone. Compact bone is solid throughout and enables our body to be supported. Compact bone is so dense that surgeon’s need to use a saw to cut through it. The next layer of bone is called spongy bone and it is lightweight and porous, which prevents our bones from getting too heavy, but still be strong. It makes up about 20% of our skeleton, and it’s found mostly in long bones, joints, and in our spine. The center of many bones are filled with a gelatinous substance called bone marrow. Bone marrow is responsible for creating red blood cells and some of our white blood cells. Bone marrow also makes platelets for our circulatory system. In addition, bone marrow stores iron for when our body needs it. We have two different types of bone marrow: yellow and red. We are born with red marrow, but it slowly changes to yellow over time. Finally, the outermost part of bone is covered in periosteum, a thin, fibrous membrane that covers all bones. The membrane is responsible for helping to create new bone in children and does the same when adults sustain an injury. The periosteum is the site at which ligaments, tendons, and muscles attach to bone! It also contains the blood vessels that allow nutrients and oxygen to the get to the bones! Knowing the four layers of bones can help us to understand just how complex our human body really is!
There are lots of different types of joints, while there is also other things that also help our body move. The tissue that is in between two bones is called cartilage. Cartilage allows your bones to move without any friction so your bones don’t grind away. If you have healthy cartilage it lets your bones slide and glide over another bone. It is also not hard and sharp like bones but it is stiffer and less flexible than muscles. The string that connects two bones together are called ligaments. Ligaments are a type of fibrous tissue that connects two of your bones together so they don’t just move around whenever you move. Over time your ligaments stretch farther and farther. If someone says they are double jointed that means their ligaments are very elastic meaning they can stretch farther than normal. One type of joint is the Gliding or Sliding joints. It allows your bones to glide up, down, side to side, and diagonally until it goes past the extension or plane of the joints. Slight rotations can sometimes occur, but depending on the elasticity and the shape of the bone can limit how big those rotations are. Another type of joint are Gliding joints that are a type of synovial joint and based on the structure of the synovial joint it provides flexibility, Also while limiting the gliding joints so injury doesn’t occur. A hinge joint is a type of synovial joint that allows you to bend up and down like a hinge on a door. Since a hinge joint acts like a door it doesn’t allow your body to swivel or move side to side like a ball and socket joint. A pivot joint is when a bone fits inside of a space in another bone that connects and makes rotary movement. Also pivot joints allow twisting movement in the forearm like unscrewing a jar of pickles. Ball and socket joints are when a bone fits into another bone and creates circulatory movement in any direction. One example of a ball and socket joint is the shoulder the humerus bone also known as the long bone at the top of the arm is the ball, and the socket is the shoulder blade and when they are connected it makes circulatory movement. All these types of joints, ligaments, and cartilage are huge factors in how are body moves and bends.
As you can see, the skeletal system has many important jobs to do! It allows us to stand straight up, move our body around, and protects our most important organs. However the skeletal system can’t move our body by itself. It needs the help of our muscular system as well!
Muscular System:
All muscles work around the body everyday doing important jobs to keep your body running properly. Some of them help bones, pump blood, and push food. There are two types of muscles that work very differently. They are voluntary and Involuntary muscles. All these jobs that they do are all done by one routine that you will learn if you keep reading.
One type of muscle is the Voluntary Muscles and they do very important jobs on a day-to-day basis. One type of voluntary muscles are Skeletal muscles that keep the skeleton together, give us shape, and help us move. They can contract quickly and powerful, but eventually they have to relax and rest between workouts. Also did you know that skeletal muscles are also called striated muscle because when you look at it under polarized light you can see alternating stripes of light or dark. These muscles are told by the nervous system to contract when needed to, and to relax other times. A flexor like a bicep contracts at the joint. Then when it is done with that the flexor relaxes and the extensor like a tricep contracts and that makes your limb straighten out. A muscle also needs a tendon. When a muscle contracts it pulls on it, and that makes the bone that it is pulling on move up or down depending on what muscle is contracting. Also Tendons are connective tissues that connect to the muscle and a bone firmly so it doesn’t rip. Tendons are like gelatin but harder, Tendons are made up though of cells called tenocytes, water and collagen proteins that float around and come together to make a tendon. In the upper arm there is a pair of muscles called the Biceps and the triceps. The Biceps pull your lower arm up and the triceps push and straighten your bone back. When the bicep contracts the triceps elongate and stretch out making the elbow joint bend. Voluntary muscles are very important as you can see by doing important jobs to help us through the day.
There is another type of muscle called Involuntary muscle that acts without being told to help our organs with everyday situations. One type of Involuntary Muscles are Cardiac muscles that are found in the heart that pump blood throughout the body giving organs and other important stuff nutrients so they can do their jobs properly. Once the blood is pumped through the whole body the cardiac muscle relax letting the blood back into the heart. Also in the walls of the heart chambers are composed almost completely with muscle fibers. These muscles can ONLY be found in the heart. They pump blood out of the heart and relax to let blood back in.Also cardiac muscles pump so hard the heart beats 70 times per minute to circulate blood through the blood vessels. Another type of muscle is Smooth that works automatically in some important organs like the intestines and stomach. Smooth muscles are involved in many ‘Housekeeping functions’ like pushing your food through the intestines and muscles in your bladder contract urine out of the body. You will also find smooth muscle behind your eyes helping you focus on objects. These muscles are found in the digestive system and help food make its journey through the body. When your sick these muscles push the food back up the intestines, through the esophagus, and out your mouth to throw up. All Involuntary muscles work automatically to do very important jobs when helping your organs.
As you can see all muscles in the muscular system each do an important job every day of your life. As you have learned Voluntary muscles are controlled by the brain to help bones move our body. Involuntary muscles work automatically in the heart, digestive system, and eyes. As you know that cardiac muscles work in the heart the Circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body once the cardiac muscles push it out of the heart. Without the Circulatory system your muscles would not get blood and stop working.
Circulatory System:
The many parts in the Circulatory System like Blood, Blood Vessels, and the Heart that all have important jobs. The Circulatory System’s main job is to deliver Nutrients and oxygen to every cell in the body. The blood delivers nutrients, the blood vessels help the blood get to the cells, and the heart and lungs work together to get blood to circulate. All these important parts of the Circulatory System make sure our cells survive.
One very important part of the Circulatory System is Blood that flows throughout your body giving nutrients and oxygen to each cell in your body. One type of blood cell are the White blood cells, they flow through your bloodstream and when they find an infection they fight against it and sometimes create a residence. There are lots of types of white blood cells. The two most common ones are lymphocytes and neutrophils. Another type of blood cell are red blood cells, that flow in your blood carrying and then delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells and bringing carbon dioxide back to the lungs. This cell has to be flexible and be bell-shaped to get through some tiny blood vessels to get to each cell. There is another thing in your blood and they are platelets, that are fragments of bone marrow and flow in the bloodstream to make blood clots to stop from excessive bleeding at a cut. When the blood clots dry out a scab is formed instead so the new skin forming underneath can heal. There is another thing in blood called Plasma, that is a yellowish liquid that carries nutrients and other important things through the body. All the waste, nutrients, hormones, and proteins dissolve in the Plasma so they can get to the blood cells. These important things that flow in the bloodstream like blood cells and sometimes platelets help your body survive.
Another part of the Circulatory System are Blood vessels that allows nutrients, hormones, and other substances to flow through them to get to each cell in the body. One type of Blood vessel are Arteries, that are big elastic tubes that let blood from the heart circulate around the body. Arteries are the blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs and the heart around the body so each cell survives. Another type of blood vessel are veins, that allow deoxygenated blood with carbon dioxide in it back to the heart so it can be pumped to the lungs. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, although there are two veins that don’t. They are called the Pulmonary and umbilical veins that carry oxygenated blood from the lung to the heart to be pumped throughout the body to each cell. One other type of blood vessel are Capillaries, that are little tiny tubes that carry oxygenated blood to each little tiny cell so they can survive. There are three types or capillaries Continuous, Fenestrated, and Sinusoidal. Sinusoidal lets red blood cells and proteins through the endothelial walls, continuous capillaries carry water and ions, and Fenestrated capillaries have large windows that carry large molecules. All these types of blood vessels allow are blood to get to its destination so our cells don’t die.
One of the most important parts of the Circulatory System is the Heart, that pumps blood into an artery that splits into more arteries, then into capillaries to get the blood to each cell. One quarter of the Heart is the Left Atrium, that can be found in the upper right hand side of the heart that gets oxygenated blood from the Pulmonary Vein and then directly passes that blood to the left ventricle. The blood from the lungs is passed through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium that then lets it pass through the bicuspid valve. Another quarter of the heart is the left ventricle, that pumps blood from the left atrium out of the heart so it can circulate around the body. After the blood comes from the left atrium and into the left ventricle it gets pumped out the aortic valve and then through the arch of aorta and then it circulates around the body. Another quarter of the heart is the right atrium, were deoxygenated blood that has circulated around the body enters through the vena cavas. Then it is passed onto the right ventricle that then pumps that blood to the lungs. When the deoxygenated blood gets to the lungs, new oxygenated blood then enters the bloodstream and goes through the left atrium and the left ventricle that then pumps the blood out of the heart. The other quarter of the heart is the right ventricle, that pumps the deoxygenated blood from the right atrium into the pulmonary artery that passes it to the lungs. Once the blood is in the right atrium it flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle that then passes it to the lungs. The heart as you can see is a very important organ in the body that has to be split into four quarters to do each job that the heart is responsible for.
As you can see the Circulatory system is very important to your body. It delivers blood through blood vessels that give cells what they need to survive like oxygen and nutrients. All the blood that is pumped throughout the body comes from the heart with four chambers to each do an important job. Although blood has to get oxygen from the lungs that are a very important part of the Respiratory system that helps you breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide that helps your body every day of your life.
Respiratory System:
Another System is the Respiratory System that helps you breathe in and out and speak. The Trachea and lungs help you breathe in and out, and your Larynx, Pharynx, and Vocal cords help you speak. All these organs are very important in your body. Although those are the most important parts of the system once the air gets to the lungs it is very complex. In the esophagus it is not just a passageway for air it also helps you breath. Most of these organs help you survive and now you will learn how.
One half of the Respiratory system is how the Air enters the body and the Trachea, Mouth and Nose all do that so that the air can get to the lungs.The Start of the Respiratory System is How air enters the body and there's two ways you can do that. One way is through the mouth and then into the Trachea and the other way is to breathe in through your nose, into the Nasal Passage and then into the Trachea.The air goes through your mouth or nose and if you don’t breathe through one of them you use the other one, but if you are not using any of them and you aren’t breathing in at all you will die. Another part of How air enters the body is the Nasal passage. When you breath in through your nose. Tiny hairs sticks onto particles in your Nasal passage before the air gets too far in the body. That mucus is also known as a booger. In the Nasal passage it brings the air to the Trachea. Once the particles and mucus are trapped they are swallowed before they can do any harm to the body. Another part of the Respiratory system is in the Trachea and Esophagus which is the Epiglottis. The Epiglottis is a flap of skin connected to the Trachea that stops you from swallowing when your breathe and when you swallow, not to breathe in. Usually it is pointed upward when you breathe and the bottom of it works as part of the Pharynx and then when you swallow it points horizontal, but the bottom still functions as part of the Pharynx. Also if you swallow for too long you won’t be able to breathe which will result in you dying. Another part of the Respiratory system that helps you speak is the Larynx. It produces voice with the vocal cords inside of it and helps you swallow and breathe. Although to produce speech air passes pass the vocal cords making them vibrate and the tongue, palate, and lips modify those vibrations. The two small bands inside the Larynx are the vocal cords that produce voice by vibrating. They form a V inside the 2 inch long Larynx meaning the vocal cords must be miniature. The voice box also known as the Larynx creates voice that is then modified into speech.The other Important part of how air gets to the lungs is the Trachea. Also known as the windpipe it is a long, wide, and hollow tube that connects the Larynx to the Bronchus allowing air to pass through it. The Larynx is at the top of the Trachea which is in the middle of your body deep in your skin near the Esophagus. All these organs help air enter your body and then get to the lungs where it is injected into the bloodstream and also they help you speak.
The Second part of the Respiratory System is how air moves in the lungs and that is accomplished by air passing through bronchi and bronchioles and finally into the alveoli that injects it into the Bloodstream. The Big twin organs that hold all the Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Alveoli are the lungs. The lungs are a big passageway for air to pass through to finally be injected into the Bloodstream by the Alveoli. The lungs expand and then deflate by the Diaphragm pushing up to make the lungs expand and then relaxes to let the lungs deflate 20 times a minute. Another tube in the Respiratory System is the Bronchial tube that allows air to pass through it to get to the two Bronchi. The Bronchial tube is in the middle of the body in the neck that goes into the two bronchi that connects to the lungs. The two tubes that the Bronchial tube passes air to are the Bronchus they allow air to pass through it so it can get into the lungs, but the right bronchi is slightly smaller than the left because of the heart taking up some of the lungs’ space. The walls of the Bronchi are made of cartilage to keep them together while allowing air to pass through them. The Next part of the Respiratory Tract is the Bronchioles where the Air passed from the bronchi and, then it’s the Bronchioles job to get that air to the Alveoli so it can be injected into the Bloodstream. The Bronchioles continue the Tradition of fanning out by spreading throughout the lungs to get to every Alveoli in the lungs. At the end of every Bronchiole there is an Alveoli that is essential to the Body because there carbon dioxide can get out of the body and the oxygen that you just breathed in gets into the bloodstream so it can get to the Cells. To get enough oxygen to the cells in an average person you need 300 Alveoli to get the job done. The extremely important job of the Alveoli is to get oxygen to the capillaries surrounding it and then into the bloodstream. Also at that time Carbon dioxide is injected into the Capillaries where it is passed onto the Alveoli. All these tubes in the lungs are very important to get to the Alveoli so it can get into the Bloodstream and finally to each cell in the Body.
As you can see, the Respiratory System is very important to your body. It starts at either the mouth or nose, into the Trachea, into the Bronchi, into the Bronchioles, and then into the Alveoli. Without air getting to your cells you wouldn’t survive. Although you don’t just need air you also need food and nutrients to survive. The System that digests your food is the Digestive System that is essential to your body.
Digestive System:
Another system in your body is the Digestive System that is one of the biggest systems in your body. It is the system that helps get your nutrients out of your food and to digest. The digestive system is also one of the most important system because it helps get nutrients and water for your cells while using mechanical and chemical digestion to make your food into digestible objects.
The first third of your digestive system is how food is digested in the mouth.The start of the Digestive System is your mouth where you put food in so it can be turned into Bolus by your Teeth and Saliva. Also The Opening which is part of your mouth is surrounded by your lips and once food is put through the opening into your mouth the tongues, teeth and saliva turn that food into a ball shaped thing that is known as bolus. Inside your Mouth is your teeth that use mechanical digestion to Chew your food and give your mouth shape. Every tooth is split into two parts. The crown and the root. The crown is located above the gum line that is responsible for chewing your food. The crown has lots of ridges making it look like a crown. The root is the part of your tooth that is stuck into a bony socket. Another thing that is in your mouth is your saliva that helps break down food and turn it into a bolus. It also helps clean your teeth so they stay healthy. The glands that make saliva are called salivary glands that make your saliva. They are located in your cheek next to your jawline. The other thing in your mouth is you tongue that is a muscular organ in your mouth that has pink tissue covering it called mucosa. On the tongue there is little bumps called papillae that are covered with taste buds that help you taste your food. The tongue is anchored to your mouth by webs of tough tissue like the tether that keeps your tongue anchored in the front of your mouth. Once your food is chewed your saliva turns it into bolus that is a ball of food ready to be swallowed. Then once it goes down the esophagus into the stomach it is mixed with digestive juices and enzymes and is then called chyme. The start of the digestive system is in you mouth which you just learned about, but there is also more to the digestive system.
The second third of the digestive system is food’s journey to the intestines.The next part of the digestive track is the esophagus which is a muscular 8 inch tube that connect your Pharynx to your stomach. It is covered in mucosa and is surrounded by the windpipe, heart, spine and then runs through your diaphragm. It also contracts and relaxes to let food pass. The movement used by the Esophagus to push food down is called peristalsis. A cow uses reverse peristalsis to push food up to the mouth to be chewed again. The next part of the Digestive track is the Stomach that puts enzymes into food and then churns it. The stomach is also covered in rugae that protects it. The stomach breaks down food taking carbohydrates, fat, and protein out of it. Digestive juices are the enzymes that break down food containing bile, gastric juices, pancreatic juice, intestinal juice, and saliva. The glands in your stomach create stomach acid and enzymes which combine with the enzymes from the pancreas to break down the carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Once the bolus is broken down even more it is then called chyme that moves into the intestines. The chyme is made up of partially digested food, water, enzymes, and hydrochloric acids. The second third of the digestive system is to break down food so it can get broken down again to get the nutrients and water we need.
The third part of the digestive system is how food is broken down so the intestines can absorb the nutrients and water and then how the waste is expelled. The first part of the process is your small intestine that is a long highly convoluted tube that absorbs 90% of the nutrients your food has in it. Also your small intestine was given its name because it is 1 inch in diameter which is nearly half of the diameter of the large intestine, but is twice the length of the large intestine. The little tiny processes in the lining of the small intestine are called villi that take part in the process of absorbing nutrients by absorbing the nutrients out of the chyme. Usually they are less than a millimeter and there is also microvilli on the villi which are even smaller. Most of the nutrients from your food is absorbed by the villi, which then is put into the bloodstream so it can be delivered to your cells. Also The villi gets the nutrients into the bloodstream by the microvilli absorbing the nutrients and each microvilli has a capillary on it so that the nutrients get into the bloodstream. Another part of the Digestive system is your Pancreas which is an organ that makes enzymes that are put into the stomach to break down the carbohydrates, fat, and protein. The juices that the Pancreas make are called pancreatic enzymes that break down carbohydrates, fat, and protein. A well working Pancreas makes about 8 cups of the enzymes a day. Two other important parts of the Digestive system that work together are the Liver and Gallbladder. The liver creates bile that passes through ducts into the gallbladder where it is stored until it is needed in the stomach. These two organs are located in the upper right portion of the abdomen. The yellowish-green liquid that is created by the Liver is called bile that passes through ducts into the gallbladder, then into the duodenum. The bile is made up of cholesterol, bile salts, and the pigment bilirubin. The next part of the Digestive System is the Large Intestine that does the very important job of absorbing water into the bloodstream and turning the waste into feces. The large intestine is larger than the small intestine in diameter, but not in length. Also in your food the water is absorbed by your large intestine that puts that water into the bloodstream to be delivered to your cells. The final part of your Digestive System is your anus which is a canal for feces to be expelled The anus is usually kept closed by sphincter muscle but can be relaxed at will to expel feces. All theses organs in the last part of the digestive system take part in absorbing nutrients and water from your food and then expelling the waste.
As you can see the Digestive System is very important to your body. It swallows down food, digests it, then sucks the nutrients and water out of your food. It has some of the most important organs like the Stomach, Intestines, liver, and Esophagus in it. Although you wouldn’t be able to do anything without the nervous system which contains the BRAIN which controls your body. This is also one of the most important systems.
Nervous System:
The Final Main System is the Nervous System that controls your body. The Nervous System contains some of the most important organs. Also the nervous system has the very important job of controlling your body, which means telling your muscles to move and organs to work. All these messages are passed on by nerves that transport messages at a crazy fast speed. All the organs and nerves in the nervous system all play a big role.
One part of the Nervous System and probably the most important is the brain that sends messages to your muscles and organs. One part of the Brain is the Cerebrum. The Cerebrum is the largest mature part of the brain made of two large masses. Determining Intelligence,Determining Personality,Thinking, Perceiving, Producing and Understanding Language, Interpretation of Sensory Impulses, Motor Function, Planning and Organization, and Touch Sensation are all things that the Cerebrum does. Another part of the Brain is the Cerebellum that is located behind the brainstem that accounts for 11% of the brain’s weight and is connected by thick nerve tracts. The Cerebellum helps you maintain balance by making postural adjustments. The other part of the Brain is the Medulla Oblongata ( Medulla ) that is anterior to the Cerebellum is a cone-shaped neuronal mass that is responsible for many autonomic functions. It also helps transfer messages to the spinal cord and control breathing,heart function, blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and swallowing. As you can see the Brain is very complex and responsible for many jobs.
The other Part of the Nervous System is your nerves that carry messages that your brain sends. One Type of Nerve is Sensory Nerves that carry messages back to the brain from stimuli. Also these nerves recept message from the brain and penetrate nearly every tissue in your body. Another type of nerve is Motor Nerves That get massages from the brain and then trigger the muscles to contract. Also all Motor Nerves control voluntary Muscles, which means that any time you decide to move Motor Nerves are involved. Another important part of the Nervous system is the Spinal cord that is made out of lots of nerve tissue. It is connected to the brain and lies in the vertebral canal.
Follow up: In the Spinal cord there is 31 nerves originating in it which are: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Another part of the Nervous system are Neurons which are a specialized cell that creates info in the form of neurotransmitters, chemical signals that can trigger a variety of activities or responses. Every neuron has a cell body known as the soma that contains organelles and dendrites. Synapses are a connection which allows for the transmission of nerve impulses. They can be found at the end of nerve cells where they are connecting to another nerve cell and where nerve cells interfere with muscular and glandular cells. Another thing in a Neuron is a Dendrite that are covered in Synapses play the role of picking up info from other neurons close by and then sending them to the Soma. Once a Dendrite gets the info from another neuron it sends a electrical stimulation to the Soma. Another part of the Nervous System is Axons that are a long branching cell like a nerve cell that are made out of semi-permeable membrane. These Axons carry messages from a nerve cell to other cells in the body. As you can see Nerves and the process of getting messages from the brain to its destination is very complex, but very important to survive.
As you can see the Nervous system that contains the Brain and your nerves play a big role in your human body. They control your body by sending messages through many nerves to finally reach their destination. All these nerves are very complex, but only do one job which is to pass on messages.
Conclusion to the Human Body Research Paper:
As you can see, the human body is a complicated, unique machine that does so many important things. Not only does it help you live, but it also helps you move, think, breathe, feel, and communicate! Can you possibly imagine what life would be like if we were missing even one of these important systems? If not, maybe a few of these valuable concepts will help you understand better:
Now you have read all about our human body and how it works 24/7 for us. I hope that you learned a lot and that you can apply some of this information to your everyday life.
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By: Aidan O.
March, 2015
Introduction To Human Body Research Paper:
The human body has six main systems and is a complex machine that is constantly working to keep us alive. Although each system has its own unique jobs to do, they synergize to keep us healthy and active.
The skeletal system is responsible for giving us support, structure, and protection and works together with the muscular system to move our body. Our muscles pull our bones, which allows us to move, jump, and run! The muscular system actually plays an important role in delivering oxygen to our body’s cells. Without the heart, one of our most important muscles, blood wouldn’t be able to travel around our body! Luckily for us, the blood travels through our lungs, where it drops off carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen that our cells are craving. Speaking of craving, did you ever know that the main purpose of our digestive system isn’t just to digest food? It’s job is actually to take nutrients and water out of what we eat and drink and then deliver it to the circulatory system where it gets delivered to the cells in our body. But none of these systems would work without the direction of our nervous system!
Now let’s get right into it with the skeletal system, where you’ll learn how our bones help us move and protect our organs.
Skeletal System:
The skeletal system has several important jobs to do in our body. It is responsible for creating blood cells, providing our body with support and structure, and enabling us to move. We have several bones that are responsible for protecting our organs like the ribs protect our heart and lungs, and the skull protects our brain! Bones cannot move unless joined together at joints. Ligaments connect our bones together and cartilage prevents them from rubbing together which would be painful! We are so lucky to have strong, powerful, yet moveable bones in our body!
The bones in our body are made up of four distinct layers. Each of these layers has important responsibilities and are vital to our day-to-day life. The outer layer of bone is called compact bone. Compact bone is solid throughout and enables our body to be supported. Compact bone is so dense that surgeon’s need to use a saw to cut through it. The next layer of bone is called spongy bone and it is lightweight and porous, which prevents our bones from getting too heavy, but still be strong. It makes up about 20% of our skeleton, and it’s found mostly in long bones, joints, and in our spine. The center of many bones are filled with a gelatinous substance called bone marrow. Bone marrow is responsible for creating red blood cells and some of our white blood cells. Bone marrow also makes platelets for our circulatory system. In addition, bone marrow stores iron for when our body needs it. We have two different types of bone marrow: yellow and red. We are born with red marrow, but it slowly changes to yellow over time. Finally, the outermost part of bone is covered in periosteum, a thin, fibrous membrane that covers all bones. The membrane is responsible for helping to create new bone in children and does the same when adults sustain an injury. The periosteum is the site at which ligaments, tendons, and muscles attach to bone! It also contains the blood vessels that allow nutrients and oxygen to the get to the bones! Knowing the four layers of bones can help us to understand just how complex our human body really is!
There are lots of different types of joints, while there is also other things that also help our body move. The tissue that is in between two bones is called cartilage. Cartilage allows your bones to move without any friction so your bones don’t grind away. If you have healthy cartilage it lets your bones slide and glide over another bone. It is also not hard and sharp like bones but it is stiffer and less flexible than muscles. The string that connects two bones together are called ligaments. Ligaments are a type of fibrous tissue that connects two of your bones together so they don’t just move around whenever you move. Over time your ligaments stretch farther and farther. If someone says they are double jointed that means their ligaments are very elastic meaning they can stretch farther than normal. One type of joint is the Gliding or Sliding joints. It allows your bones to glide up, down, side to side, and diagonally until it goes past the extension or plane of the joints. Slight rotations can sometimes occur, but depending on the elasticity and the shape of the bone can limit how big those rotations are. Another type of joint are Gliding joints that are a type of synovial joint and based on the structure of the synovial joint it provides flexibility, Also while limiting the gliding joints so injury doesn’t occur. A hinge joint is a type of synovial joint that allows you to bend up and down like a hinge on a door. Since a hinge joint acts like a door it doesn’t allow your body to swivel or move side to side like a ball and socket joint. A pivot joint is when a bone fits inside of a space in another bone that connects and makes rotary movement. Also pivot joints allow twisting movement in the forearm like unscrewing a jar of pickles. Ball and socket joints are when a bone fits into another bone and creates circulatory movement in any direction. One example of a ball and socket joint is the shoulder the humerus bone also known as the long bone at the top of the arm is the ball, and the socket is the shoulder blade and when they are connected it makes circulatory movement. All these types of joints, ligaments, and cartilage are huge factors in how are body moves and bends.
As you can see, the skeletal system has many important jobs to do! It allows us to stand straight up, move our body around, and protects our most important organs. However the skeletal system can’t move our body by itself. It needs the help of our muscular system as well!
Muscular System:
All muscles work around the body everyday doing important jobs to keep your body running properly. Some of them help bones, pump blood, and push food. There are two types of muscles that work very differently. They are voluntary and Involuntary muscles. All these jobs that they do are all done by one routine that you will learn if you keep reading.
One type of muscle is the Voluntary Muscles and they do very important jobs on a day-to-day basis. One type of voluntary muscles are Skeletal muscles that keep the skeleton together, give us shape, and help us move. They can contract quickly and powerful, but eventually they have to relax and rest between workouts. Also did you know that skeletal muscles are also called striated muscle because when you look at it under polarized light you can see alternating stripes of light or dark. These muscles are told by the nervous system to contract when needed to, and to relax other times. A flexor like a bicep contracts at the joint. Then when it is done with that the flexor relaxes and the extensor like a tricep contracts and that makes your limb straighten out. A muscle also needs a tendon. When a muscle contracts it pulls on it, and that makes the bone that it is pulling on move up or down depending on what muscle is contracting. Also Tendons are connective tissues that connect to the muscle and a bone firmly so it doesn’t rip. Tendons are like gelatin but harder, Tendons are made up though of cells called tenocytes, water and collagen proteins that float around and come together to make a tendon. In the upper arm there is a pair of muscles called the Biceps and the triceps. The Biceps pull your lower arm up and the triceps push and straighten your bone back. When the bicep contracts the triceps elongate and stretch out making the elbow joint bend. Voluntary muscles are very important as you can see by doing important jobs to help us through the day.
There is another type of muscle called Involuntary muscle that acts without being told to help our organs with everyday situations. One type of Involuntary Muscles are Cardiac muscles that are found in the heart that pump blood throughout the body giving organs and other important stuff nutrients so they can do their jobs properly. Once the blood is pumped through the whole body the cardiac muscle relax letting the blood back into the heart. Also in the walls of the heart chambers are composed almost completely with muscle fibers. These muscles can ONLY be found in the heart. They pump blood out of the heart and relax to let blood back in.Also cardiac muscles pump so hard the heart beats 70 times per minute to circulate blood through the blood vessels. Another type of muscle is Smooth that works automatically in some important organs like the intestines and stomach. Smooth muscles are involved in many ‘Housekeeping functions’ like pushing your food through the intestines and muscles in your bladder contract urine out of the body. You will also find smooth muscle behind your eyes helping you focus on objects. These muscles are found in the digestive system and help food make its journey through the body. When your sick these muscles push the food back up the intestines, through the esophagus, and out your mouth to throw up. All Involuntary muscles work automatically to do very important jobs when helping your organs.
As you can see all muscles in the muscular system each do an important job every day of your life. As you have learned Voluntary muscles are controlled by the brain to help bones move our body. Involuntary muscles work automatically in the heart, digestive system, and eyes. As you know that cardiac muscles work in the heart the Circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body once the cardiac muscles push it out of the heart. Without the Circulatory system your muscles would not get blood and stop working.
Circulatory System:
The many parts in the Circulatory System like Blood, Blood Vessels, and the Heart that all have important jobs. The Circulatory System’s main job is to deliver Nutrients and oxygen to every cell in the body. The blood delivers nutrients, the blood vessels help the blood get to the cells, and the heart and lungs work together to get blood to circulate. All these important parts of the Circulatory System make sure our cells survive.
One very important part of the Circulatory System is Blood that flows throughout your body giving nutrients and oxygen to each cell in your body. One type of blood cell are the White blood cells, they flow through your bloodstream and when they find an infection they fight against it and sometimes create a residence. There are lots of types of white blood cells. The two most common ones are lymphocytes and neutrophils. Another type of blood cell are red blood cells, that flow in your blood carrying and then delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells and bringing carbon dioxide back to the lungs. This cell has to be flexible and be bell-shaped to get through some tiny blood vessels to get to each cell. There is another thing in your blood and they are platelets, that are fragments of bone marrow and flow in the bloodstream to make blood clots to stop from excessive bleeding at a cut. When the blood clots dry out a scab is formed instead so the new skin forming underneath can heal. There is another thing in blood called Plasma, that is a yellowish liquid that carries nutrients and other important things through the body. All the waste, nutrients, hormones, and proteins dissolve in the Plasma so they can get to the blood cells. These important things that flow in the bloodstream like blood cells and sometimes platelets help your body survive.
Another part of the Circulatory System are Blood vessels that allows nutrients, hormones, and other substances to flow through them to get to each cell in the body. One type of Blood vessel are Arteries, that are big elastic tubes that let blood from the heart circulate around the body. Arteries are the blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs and the heart around the body so each cell survives. Another type of blood vessel are veins, that allow deoxygenated blood with carbon dioxide in it back to the heart so it can be pumped to the lungs. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, although there are two veins that don’t. They are called the Pulmonary and umbilical veins that carry oxygenated blood from the lung to the heart to be pumped throughout the body to each cell. One other type of blood vessel are Capillaries, that are little tiny tubes that carry oxygenated blood to each little tiny cell so they can survive. There are three types or capillaries Continuous, Fenestrated, and Sinusoidal. Sinusoidal lets red blood cells and proteins through the endothelial walls, continuous capillaries carry water and ions, and Fenestrated capillaries have large windows that carry large molecules. All these types of blood vessels allow are blood to get to its destination so our cells don’t die.
One of the most important parts of the Circulatory System is the Heart, that pumps blood into an artery that splits into more arteries, then into capillaries to get the blood to each cell. One quarter of the Heart is the Left Atrium, that can be found in the upper right hand side of the heart that gets oxygenated blood from the Pulmonary Vein and then directly passes that blood to the left ventricle. The blood from the lungs is passed through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium that then lets it pass through the bicuspid valve. Another quarter of the heart is the left ventricle, that pumps blood from the left atrium out of the heart so it can circulate around the body. After the blood comes from the left atrium and into the left ventricle it gets pumped out the aortic valve and then through the arch of aorta and then it circulates around the body. Another quarter of the heart is the right atrium, were deoxygenated blood that has circulated around the body enters through the vena cavas. Then it is passed onto the right ventricle that then pumps that blood to the lungs. When the deoxygenated blood gets to the lungs, new oxygenated blood then enters the bloodstream and goes through the left atrium and the left ventricle that then pumps the blood out of the heart. The other quarter of the heart is the right ventricle, that pumps the deoxygenated blood from the right atrium into the pulmonary artery that passes it to the lungs. Once the blood is in the right atrium it flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle that then passes it to the lungs. The heart as you can see is a very important organ in the body that has to be split into four quarters to do each job that the heart is responsible for.
As you can see the Circulatory system is very important to your body. It delivers blood through blood vessels that give cells what they need to survive like oxygen and nutrients. All the blood that is pumped throughout the body comes from the heart with four chambers to each do an important job. Although blood has to get oxygen from the lungs that are a very important part of the Respiratory system that helps you breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide that helps your body every day of your life.
Respiratory System:
Another System is the Respiratory System that helps you breathe in and out and speak. The Trachea and lungs help you breathe in and out, and your Larynx, Pharynx, and Vocal cords help you speak. All these organs are very important in your body. Although those are the most important parts of the system once the air gets to the lungs it is very complex. In the esophagus it is not just a passageway for air it also helps you breath. Most of these organs help you survive and now you will learn how.
One half of the Respiratory system is how the Air enters the body and the Trachea, Mouth and Nose all do that so that the air can get to the lungs.The Start of the Respiratory System is How air enters the body and there's two ways you can do that. One way is through the mouth and then into the Trachea and the other way is to breathe in through your nose, into the Nasal Passage and then into the Trachea.The air goes through your mouth or nose and if you don’t breathe through one of them you use the other one, but if you are not using any of them and you aren’t breathing in at all you will die. Another part of How air enters the body is the Nasal passage. When you breath in through your nose. Tiny hairs sticks onto particles in your Nasal passage before the air gets too far in the body. That mucus is also known as a booger. In the Nasal passage it brings the air to the Trachea. Once the particles and mucus are trapped they are swallowed before they can do any harm to the body. Another part of the Respiratory system is in the Trachea and Esophagus which is the Epiglottis. The Epiglottis is a flap of skin connected to the Trachea that stops you from swallowing when your breathe and when you swallow, not to breathe in. Usually it is pointed upward when you breathe and the bottom of it works as part of the Pharynx and then when you swallow it points horizontal, but the bottom still functions as part of the Pharynx. Also if you swallow for too long you won’t be able to breathe which will result in you dying. Another part of the Respiratory system that helps you speak is the Larynx. It produces voice with the vocal cords inside of it and helps you swallow and breathe. Although to produce speech air passes pass the vocal cords making them vibrate and the tongue, palate, and lips modify those vibrations. The two small bands inside the Larynx are the vocal cords that produce voice by vibrating. They form a V inside the 2 inch long Larynx meaning the vocal cords must be miniature. The voice box also known as the Larynx creates voice that is then modified into speech.The other Important part of how air gets to the lungs is the Trachea. Also known as the windpipe it is a long, wide, and hollow tube that connects the Larynx to the Bronchus allowing air to pass through it. The Larynx is at the top of the Trachea which is in the middle of your body deep in your skin near the Esophagus. All these organs help air enter your body and then get to the lungs where it is injected into the bloodstream and also they help you speak.
The Second part of the Respiratory System is how air moves in the lungs and that is accomplished by air passing through bronchi and bronchioles and finally into the alveoli that injects it into the Bloodstream. The Big twin organs that hold all the Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Alveoli are the lungs. The lungs are a big passageway for air to pass through to finally be injected into the Bloodstream by the Alveoli. The lungs expand and then deflate by the Diaphragm pushing up to make the lungs expand and then relaxes to let the lungs deflate 20 times a minute. Another tube in the Respiratory System is the Bronchial tube that allows air to pass through it to get to the two Bronchi. The Bronchial tube is in the middle of the body in the neck that goes into the two bronchi that connects to the lungs. The two tubes that the Bronchial tube passes air to are the Bronchus they allow air to pass through it so it can get into the lungs, but the right bronchi is slightly smaller than the left because of the heart taking up some of the lungs’ space. The walls of the Bronchi are made of cartilage to keep them together while allowing air to pass through them. The Next part of the Respiratory Tract is the Bronchioles where the Air passed from the bronchi and, then it’s the Bronchioles job to get that air to the Alveoli so it can be injected into the Bloodstream. The Bronchioles continue the Tradition of fanning out by spreading throughout the lungs to get to every Alveoli in the lungs. At the end of every Bronchiole there is an Alveoli that is essential to the Body because there carbon dioxide can get out of the body and the oxygen that you just breathed in gets into the bloodstream so it can get to the Cells. To get enough oxygen to the cells in an average person you need 300 Alveoli to get the job done. The extremely important job of the Alveoli is to get oxygen to the capillaries surrounding it and then into the bloodstream. Also at that time Carbon dioxide is injected into the Capillaries where it is passed onto the Alveoli. All these tubes in the lungs are very important to get to the Alveoli so it can get into the Bloodstream and finally to each cell in the Body.
As you can see, the Respiratory System is very important to your body. It starts at either the mouth or nose, into the Trachea, into the Bronchi, into the Bronchioles, and then into the Alveoli. Without air getting to your cells you wouldn’t survive. Although you don’t just need air you also need food and nutrients to survive. The System that digests your food is the Digestive System that is essential to your body.
Digestive System:
Another system in your body is the Digestive System that is one of the biggest systems in your body. It is the system that helps get your nutrients out of your food and to digest. The digestive system is also one of the most important system because it helps get nutrients and water for your cells while using mechanical and chemical digestion to make your food into digestible objects.
The first third of your digestive system is how food is digested in the mouth.The start of the Digestive System is your mouth where you put food in so it can be turned into Bolus by your Teeth and Saliva. Also The Opening which is part of your mouth is surrounded by your lips and once food is put through the opening into your mouth the tongues, teeth and saliva turn that food into a ball shaped thing that is known as bolus. Inside your Mouth is your teeth that use mechanical digestion to Chew your food and give your mouth shape. Every tooth is split into two parts. The crown and the root. The crown is located above the gum line that is responsible for chewing your food. The crown has lots of ridges making it look like a crown. The root is the part of your tooth that is stuck into a bony socket. Another thing that is in your mouth is your saliva that helps break down food and turn it into a bolus. It also helps clean your teeth so they stay healthy. The glands that make saliva are called salivary glands that make your saliva. They are located in your cheek next to your jawline. The other thing in your mouth is you tongue that is a muscular organ in your mouth that has pink tissue covering it called mucosa. On the tongue there is little bumps called papillae that are covered with taste buds that help you taste your food. The tongue is anchored to your mouth by webs of tough tissue like the tether that keeps your tongue anchored in the front of your mouth. Once your food is chewed your saliva turns it into bolus that is a ball of food ready to be swallowed. Then once it goes down the esophagus into the stomach it is mixed with digestive juices and enzymes and is then called chyme. The start of the digestive system is in you mouth which you just learned about, but there is also more to the digestive system.
The second third of the digestive system is food’s journey to the intestines.The next part of the digestive track is the esophagus which is a muscular 8 inch tube that connect your Pharynx to your stomach. It is covered in mucosa and is surrounded by the windpipe, heart, spine and then runs through your diaphragm. It also contracts and relaxes to let food pass. The movement used by the Esophagus to push food down is called peristalsis. A cow uses reverse peristalsis to push food up to the mouth to be chewed again. The next part of the Digestive track is the Stomach that puts enzymes into food and then churns it. The stomach is also covered in rugae that protects it. The stomach breaks down food taking carbohydrates, fat, and protein out of it. Digestive juices are the enzymes that break down food containing bile, gastric juices, pancreatic juice, intestinal juice, and saliva. The glands in your stomach create stomach acid and enzymes which combine with the enzymes from the pancreas to break down the carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Once the bolus is broken down even more it is then called chyme that moves into the intestines. The chyme is made up of partially digested food, water, enzymes, and hydrochloric acids. The second third of the digestive system is to break down food so it can get broken down again to get the nutrients and water we need.
The third part of the digestive system is how food is broken down so the intestines can absorb the nutrients and water and then how the waste is expelled. The first part of the process is your small intestine that is a long highly convoluted tube that absorbs 90% of the nutrients your food has in it. Also your small intestine was given its name because it is 1 inch in diameter which is nearly half of the diameter of the large intestine, but is twice the length of the large intestine. The little tiny processes in the lining of the small intestine are called villi that take part in the process of absorbing nutrients by absorbing the nutrients out of the chyme. Usually they are less than a millimeter and there is also microvilli on the villi which are even smaller. Most of the nutrients from your food is absorbed by the villi, which then is put into the bloodstream so it can be delivered to your cells. Also The villi gets the nutrients into the bloodstream by the microvilli absorbing the nutrients and each microvilli has a capillary on it so that the nutrients get into the bloodstream. Another part of the Digestive system is your Pancreas which is an organ that makes enzymes that are put into the stomach to break down the carbohydrates, fat, and protein. The juices that the Pancreas make are called pancreatic enzymes that break down carbohydrates, fat, and protein. A well working Pancreas makes about 8 cups of the enzymes a day. Two other important parts of the Digestive system that work together are the Liver and Gallbladder. The liver creates bile that passes through ducts into the gallbladder where it is stored until it is needed in the stomach. These two organs are located in the upper right portion of the abdomen. The yellowish-green liquid that is created by the Liver is called bile that passes through ducts into the gallbladder, then into the duodenum. The bile is made up of cholesterol, bile salts, and the pigment bilirubin. The next part of the Digestive System is the Large Intestine that does the very important job of absorbing water into the bloodstream and turning the waste into feces. The large intestine is larger than the small intestine in diameter, but not in length. Also in your food the water is absorbed by your large intestine that puts that water into the bloodstream to be delivered to your cells. The final part of your Digestive System is your anus which is a canal for feces to be expelled The anus is usually kept closed by sphincter muscle but can be relaxed at will to expel feces. All theses organs in the last part of the digestive system take part in absorbing nutrients and water from your food and then expelling the waste.
As you can see the Digestive System is very important to your body. It swallows down food, digests it, then sucks the nutrients and water out of your food. It has some of the most important organs like the Stomach, Intestines, liver, and Esophagus in it. Although you wouldn’t be able to do anything without the nervous system which contains the BRAIN which controls your body. This is also one of the most important systems.
Nervous System:
The Final Main System is the Nervous System that controls your body. The Nervous System contains some of the most important organs. Also the nervous system has the very important job of controlling your body, which means telling your muscles to move and organs to work. All these messages are passed on by nerves that transport messages at a crazy fast speed. All the organs and nerves in the nervous system all play a big role.
One part of the Nervous System and probably the most important is the brain that sends messages to your muscles and organs. One part of the Brain is the Cerebrum. The Cerebrum is the largest mature part of the brain made of two large masses. Determining Intelligence,Determining Personality,Thinking, Perceiving, Producing and Understanding Language, Interpretation of Sensory Impulses, Motor Function, Planning and Organization, and Touch Sensation are all things that the Cerebrum does. Another part of the Brain is the Cerebellum that is located behind the brainstem that accounts for 11% of the brain’s weight and is connected by thick nerve tracts. The Cerebellum helps you maintain balance by making postural adjustments. The other part of the Brain is the Medulla Oblongata ( Medulla ) that is anterior to the Cerebellum is a cone-shaped neuronal mass that is responsible for many autonomic functions. It also helps transfer messages to the spinal cord and control breathing,heart function, blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and swallowing. As you can see the Brain is very complex and responsible for many jobs.
The other Part of the Nervous System is your nerves that carry messages that your brain sends. One Type of Nerve is Sensory Nerves that carry messages back to the brain from stimuli. Also these nerves recept message from the brain and penetrate nearly every tissue in your body. Another type of nerve is Motor Nerves That get massages from the brain and then trigger the muscles to contract. Also all Motor Nerves control voluntary Muscles, which means that any time you decide to move Motor Nerves are involved. Another important part of the Nervous system is the Spinal cord that is made out of lots of nerve tissue. It is connected to the brain and lies in the vertebral canal.
Follow up: In the Spinal cord there is 31 nerves originating in it which are: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Another part of the Nervous system are Neurons which are a specialized cell that creates info in the form of neurotransmitters, chemical signals that can trigger a variety of activities or responses. Every neuron has a cell body known as the soma that contains organelles and dendrites. Synapses are a connection which allows for the transmission of nerve impulses. They can be found at the end of nerve cells where they are connecting to another nerve cell and where nerve cells interfere with muscular and glandular cells. Another thing in a Neuron is a Dendrite that are covered in Synapses play the role of picking up info from other neurons close by and then sending them to the Soma. Once a Dendrite gets the info from another neuron it sends a electrical stimulation to the Soma. Another part of the Nervous System is Axons that are a long branching cell like a nerve cell that are made out of semi-permeable membrane. These Axons carry messages from a nerve cell to other cells in the body. As you can see Nerves and the process of getting messages from the brain to its destination is very complex, but very important to survive.
As you can see the Nervous system that contains the Brain and your nerves play a big role in your human body. They control your body by sending messages through many nerves to finally reach their destination. All these nerves are very complex, but only do one job which is to pass on messages.
Conclusion to the Human Body Research Paper:
As you can see, the human body is a complicated, unique machine that does so many important things. Not only does it help you live, but it also helps you move, think, breathe, feel, and communicate! Can you possibly imagine what life would be like if we were missing even one of these important systems? If not, maybe a few of these valuable concepts will help you understand better:
- The bones in our body support and protect, while our muscles pull but never push!
- In addition, our blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to our cells, while the alveoli in our lungs exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
- Finally, our digestive system is responsible for extracting important nutrients and water from what we eat and drink, but we’d never be able to do any of these things without our amazing nervous system!
Now you have read all about our human body and how it works 24/7 for us. I hope that you learned a lot and that you can apply some of this information to your everyday life.
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